An essay exploring the first Western interactions with Japan; how relations and trade affected society during the Sengoku period, ultimately aiding Nobunaga Oda and the success of Nagashino no tatakai, bringing the Edo Jidai.

During his time in China, Marco Polo heard of a land rich in both gold and silver. He emphasised its wealth as he wrote of the land “Zipangu”.

The Chinese themselves first mentioned Japan in their written history during 57AD within the book of Han, which states how the Chinese Emperor gifted a golden seal to “Wa” – the first name referring to Japan. Despite such early relations with China, Japan remained alien to the West for centuries.

Marco Polo never made it to his fabled land of silver and gold. Christopher Columbus, who had been drawn in by Polo’s description of the far-Eastern country, set out yet failed to reach its shores. It wasn’t until 1543 that the first Westerners made contact with “Zipangu”; the country we recognise today as Japan – and by accident, too! 

This detail from a folding namban jin (“southern barbarian screen”) shows Portuguese traders landing in Japan. Though they found Japan by accident, they did so just as Japan had discovered vast deposits of silver and was eager to trade.

Three shipwrecked Portuguese men - Antonio Mota, Antonio Peixodo, and Fransciso Zimo – reached the small Japanese Isle of Tanegashima (種子島); they were eventually followed by many more as Japan opened her arms to trade with the Portuguese and for the first time, Western culture, technologies, and ideas were released to there. Before this time, an historian could claim that the main foreign cultural influence upon Japan had been Chinese, though this accidental meeting between Japanese and Portuguese altered this.

While they commented on the Western guest’s long facial features, and inability to eat with chopsticks, the local Daimyo (feudal lord) of Tanegashima was very interested in their Western weapons. Antonio, Antonio, and Fransciso’s firearms caught the Daimyo’s eye, resulting in him purchasing two matchlock muskets from the sailors before requesting his swordsmiths to replicate them.

Japanese Tanegashima arquebus

An historian could argue that this was not only the first, but also one of the largest effects Western civilization had upon Japanese military as the matchlocks (later named for the Island they were first introduced to; Tanegashima) shaped Japanese warfare.

After the first meeting more Portuguese ships entered Japan, starting with three to four average-sized ships sailing to the country yearly; a number which gradually increased, as well as the size of the ships.

This became known as “Nanban Boueki” (南蛮貿易) – the Southern barbarian trade. Portuguese explorers, missionaries, and merchants flocked to Japan where they established Catholicism and trade. Daimyo were initially impressed by the trading; due to the Wakou raids (piracy occurring on the shores of China, Korea, and Japan) the Chinese Emperor had blocked Japan from trade (despite the Wakou being of mixed ethnicity), so the Portuguese who still had decent relations with China would trade Chinese goods with Japan. These goods, primarily silk and Chinese porcelain, were appreciated and made a positive start to trade with Japan, aiding in its success as these were both goods which had been acquired in the past. It could also be argued that it aided Portuguese trade by starting it with something familiar, so the new Western goods had more time to be introduced before being introduced in trade.

Religion followed the missionaries, who were set to convert what was written at the time as “at least on Japanese”. Daimyo Omura Sumita was the first to convert to Christianity, it was also he who opened the port of Nagasaki to Portuguese trade.

It could be debated that the introduction of Western guns was the largest influence the Portuguese introduced, even more so than religion (although both the guns and Christianity were abolished around the same time).

Of course, gunpowder and such had been introduced to Japan long before the Portuguese did; firearms (teppoi; literally meaning “iron cannon”) appeared in Japan as early as the 13th Century through interactions with the Chinese, although they were never really used. The way of the Samurai was more honourable, and a sword considered more “civilized” by Japanese perspective. With Japanese culture as it was, there was never a particular need for use of these bulky weapons relying on gunpowder.

A view of Chinese cannon gifted to Daulatabad Fort

Then again, the Nanban Boueki occurred in an era known as Sengoku Jidai (戦国時代) – the Sengoku, or warring states, period. This was an era of Japanese history where Daimyo fought for control over the country; an era lasting generations of civil war which dated between 1467 and the beginning of the Edo Jidai (also known as Tokugawa period) in 1603. This made the need for victory more desperate as feudal lords clashed for supremacy, which an historian could describe as a factor for the vast increase of Western guns to warfare at the time so soon after their introduction. The muskets traded into Japan via Portuguese became adopted all over the country, so much so that Japan became the largest producer of Muskets in the late 1500’s.

In 1567, Daimyo Takedo Shingen announced “… guns will be the most important arms. Therefore, decrease the number of spears per unit and have the most capable men carry guns.” An historian could describe the increase of guns to be incredibly altering to Japanese society; war before Western interference occurred very differently. During battle, one Samurai from each opposing side would walk to the middle of the battlefield and shout their own name before initiating combat: a fight to the death using their swords. Another common occurrence was would be one Samurai riding into the centre of the battlefield and challenging the opposition for an opponent to step forward and fight. Obviously, the introduction of guns would create major change to this system. Guns had the ability to change warfare from honourable samurai duels to faceless warriors shooting one another down.

One key event in Japanese history which an historian could describe as the first occurrence of “modern warfare” was Nagashino no tatakai (長篠の戦い) – the battle of Nagashino (1575).

Battle of Nagashino

Oda Nobunaga (織田 信長) was a powerful Daimyo during the Sengoku period, and a notable figure for Japan being united after the years of civil war. It was he who brought forward the first major use of matchlock guns with his and Tokugawa Ieyasu’s joint armies during this battle. Although it wasn’t the first occurrence of firearms being used in battle, modifications made to the weapons partnered with Nobunaga’s strategies were significant to his victory. As mentioned, firearms at the time were not the most impressive, so Japanese innovation improved them by developing larger calibres to increase firepower, as well as protective boxes to make the matchlock muskets more effective under rainy conditions. In this way, we could describe the innovations as another example of Japanese selection and adaptation of foreign ideas; the same as which occurred earlier in history with the introduction of Chinese ideas as the Japanese fostered foreign ideas and reshaped them to suit themselves better. In aid of this, Nobunaga armed his ashigaru (foot soldiers) with 500 of these muskets, partnered with tate – shields. This battle, though you wouldn’t describe it to rely on the guns, allowed muskets to become a major and valued aspect of the assault. The battle was located on a plain near Nagashino castle, which had been under siege since June 17th (1575) due to it being in the way of Takada Tsuyori’s army’s supply lines.

Nobunaga himself was already feared and in control of a large part of Japan – it was said that his name alone could induce fear, though it was this battle which ultimately made sure he was the most powerful Daimyo at the time.

He placed his ashigaru above a river with steep banks which slowed the enemy’s cavalry charge and allowed his forces to shoot from behind their shields. Samurai warriors cut down those who made it past the gunmen. Nobunaga’s strategy resulted in a victory over the 12,000 strong army, before going on to behead the remaining 3000 of Takada’s forces located within the besieged castle. This battle allowed Nobunaga to become almost undefeatable, which helped Tokugawa Ieyasu who eventually succeeded him (after Nobunaga’s general Toyotomi Hideyoshi) and removed the remaining threats before becoming Shogun.

In this way, It could be argued that of all things introduced by Westerners muskets were the most important due to the firepower’s aid in Nobunaga’ peak of power, which was a key feature to Tokugawa Ieyasu (徳川 家康) coming to power after him and therefore, the Edo Jidai (江戸時代).

As well as bringing western guns to Japan, Portuguese trade also lead to trade with Spain and introduced new foods, such as the custom modern-day sushi shop feature of tempura.

Woodblock print of William Adams

However, while the Portuguese were first to reach Japan, other nationalities eventually followed, including the Dutch and English. The man who established trade between Japan and these two countries was also the first Englishman to venture upon Japan, William Adams, who was also notable for being an advisor to Tokugawa Ieyasu (who, by Adams’ arrival, had become Shogun) and becoming the first Western Samurai.

Adams had been on board a Dutch trading ship, Liefde, which had originally set travel for South Africa, and only supposed to change course to Japan if that failed. When they arrived in the year 1600 it was the Portuguese missionaries - not wanting a man of Protestant religion in Japan as they were already trying to convert people to Catholicism -  who claimed Adams’ and his crew of approximately 20 (surviving from over 100) to be pirates, and therefore crucified. Nevertheless, it was on Shogun Tokugawa’s command that they be spared from prison and death. Adams met Tokugawa for questioning three times between May and June that year, at the end of which Adams requested trade privileges to be opened to the Dutch like they had allowed for Portugal.

Tokugawa was intrigued by Adams’ knowledge of ships and requested him to build the first two Western-styled ships in Japan, ultimately developing the Japanese standard Red Seal ships. Adams also told the Shogun of England and assured that his people would not try to convert Japanese civilians to their religion. Furthermore, Adams became a major player in opening trade to the English, and in 1618 establishing a trading factory for that purpose, although it dissolved three years later after his death.

1634 painting of a Red Seal ship. Tokyo Naval Science Museum.
Taken from Wikimedia

Trade with the English was the most short-lived, lasting only 10 years, compared to the trade occurring with Spain, Portugal, and the Dutch – who were later the only foreigners allowed in Japan during Edo Jidai. The trade with these countries introduced things such as tobacco and soap (however, please note that bathing daily was more than common in Japan at the time, and written accounts of the Western visitors often record disgust in how they would go far longer without bathing) until the trade era ended.

Sengoku Jidai, the warring states period, came to an end as Japan was finally unified and Tokugawa Ieyasu became Shogun. Despite trusting Adams, Tokugawa appeared to generally dislike Westerners – especially Christianity, which was a religion where people worshiped a god over him, and he took care in abolishing it in 1614. Trade was later blocked, all except the Dutch trading point at Nagasaki harbour, mostly due to Portuguese missionary’s attempts of sneaking in. 

Dejima and Nagasaki Bay, 1820 painting

Along with the era of peace, came an era of seclusion. Despite Tokugawa’s efforts, the “barbarians” from the Western world would return and trigger Japanese modernisation over 200 years later, as the American commodore Mathew Perry sailed to port in 1854…

Caitlin

A Squadron is formed

Wing Commander Guy Gibson was just completing his 173rd trip over Germany; he was 25 years of age and already had a D.S.O. and D.F.C. He was expecting to go to Cornwall on leave when he received a summons to report to 5 Group Headquarters. The commander of 5 Group was Air Vice-Marshal the hon. Ralph Cochrane, chosen by “Bomber” Harris to form the new squadron with Guy Gibson as its Wing Commander. Gibson was told he had four days to form a new squadron based at Scampton and he would not be told the target but was to concentrate on low level flying.

Wing Commander Guy Gibson VC, Commanding Officer of No. 617 Squadron (The Dambusters), May 1943

On March 21st Gibson arrived at Scampton to take over formal command of Squadron “X” (no number had yet been given). He had picked 147 individuals giving him twenty-one complete crews, seven to a crew. They had all done at least one tour and some had done 2 tours. The average age was 22 years old and the D.F.C.’s and other medals marked them as veteran flyers. The next few days were spent re-kitting most of them, sorting out all the equipment for the aircraft and the 101 things necessary to become operational. As he walked into the mess feeling he was winning he was told he was going to command 617 squadron. That was his new number with marking letters of AJ on the planes.

Gibson met Wallis a few days later and Wallis was horrified to learn he had not been told what target he was training for. Security was extremely tight for everyone involved in Project Downwood, from the inventor to the flight crews involved. It was only later Gibson learned of the 3 dams and was secretly relieved it was not going to be the “Tirpitz” that was causing the deaths of many of his friends. All mail was censored and telephones tapped to ensure nothing was given away about the operation that was now only 10 weeks away.

Wing Commander Dann, a sighting specialist, contacted Gibson with an answer to the problems he was having with accurate bombing. There were 2 towers on each dam about 600 feet apart. Using the simple gadget they were able to drop their bombs with an average error of only four yards letting the bomb make 3 skips before hitting the dam wall.

On April 22 Gibson watched with Wallis as a Lancaster dropped a bomb at Reculver and the bomb burst apart as it impacted on the water. This happened several times and Wallis said it was being dropped too high at 150 feet. Gibson agreed, albeit reluctantly, to dropping the bomb at 60 feet. Getting the height correct was now possible.

Using two searchlights beneath the Lancaster, the arcs of the lights touched on the surface of the water when the plane was at the agreed height for dropping, in this case 150 feet which was later reduced to 60 feet.

On April 29 Wallis finished strengthening another bomb and Vickers test pilot Shorty Longbottom flew it to Reculver for another test. At 60 feet and just under 250 mph the bomb dropped cleanly, bounced 3 times and went through the middle of the marker buoys. The stage was set for 617 Squadron to enter the history books.

Operation Chastise

On the morning of May 15 pilots, navigators and bomb aimers were summoned to the briefing room. Gibson introduced Barnes Wallis and Mutt Summer and showed them the 3 models of the Mohne, Eder and Sorpe dams. Wallis told them of the effects that a successful operation would have on German industry. They spent 2 hours learning all they could about the targets, discussing drawbacks and making suggestions on approach, etc. They then went back to their mess rooms for an early night as the raid was taking place the next evening.

The Night of the Raid

At 4.00pm all crews were summoned to the briefing room. Soon all 133 bomber personnel were seated and heard for the first time their intended targets. Gibson told them what he had told the others the previous day, Wallis told them about the dams and what their destruction could do and Cochrane finished with a short crisp talk.

Formation 1 consisting of three waves, taking off with ten minutes between waves:

Gibson
Hopgood
Martin

Young
Astell
Maltby

Maudslay
Knight
Shannon

They were to attack the Moehne and once it was breached those who had not yet bombed would go on to the Eder.

Formation 2: one wave in loose formation:

McCarthy
Byers
Barlow
Rice
Munro

These would attack the Sorpe, crossing the coast by the northern route as a diversion to split the German defences.

Formation 3: would take off later as the mobile reserve:

Townsend
Brown
Anderson
Ottley
Burpee

There followed a lengthy period of waiting, always the worst time before taking off. Gibson spoke to Chiefy Powell asking him to bury his dog, Nigger, at midnight. Nigger had been hit by a hit and run driver the previous day and it was an unusual request from the usual taciturn Gibson but he had it in his mind that he and Nigger might be going into the ground about the same time that evening.

At exactly ten past nine a red Very light curled up from Gibson’s aircraft, the signal for McCarthy’s five aircraft to start. The northern route was longer and they were taking off ten minutes earlier.

The map below shows the optimum routes they were to follow.

They flew at 40 feet above the ground for most of their trip over the European land, nerve racking in its own right. When they sighted the dam Gibson went in first. The bombs electric motor started it turning, the spotlights gave them the correct height and the Bomb Aimer used his wooden sight to gauge the correct distance for dropping. As Gibson lifted his Lancaster after flying over the dam he heard someone say, “Good show, Leader. Nice work.”

The dam did not give way and once the water had settled Gibson told Hopgood to take his turn. M for Mother was hit by flak as it came in for its run, the bomb bounced over the dam onto the power house below and M for Mother spun into the ground before anyone could get out.

P for Popsie was next and Gibson told them he would try and distract the flak by flying across the dam as he made his run in. He dropped his bomb and made it through the flak. When the bomb exploded water was pushed over the top of the dam but it did not give way.

A for Apple was next and this time both Gibson and Martin tried to distract the flak. Digby Young dropped his bomb as accurately as the others but only a high plume of water was seen.

This time he called Maltby in and then continued their distracting run across the dam. Maltby dropped his bomb and as he pulled away Gibson called up Shannon to start his run. When he heard Martin say, “It’s gone.” Gibson turned back over the dam and saw a ragged hole 100 yards across and 100 feet deep had appeared in the dam's face.

Photograph of the breached Möhne Dam taken by Flying Officer Jerry Fray of No. 542 Squadron from his Spitfire PR IX, six Barrage balloons are above the dam

The key word “Nigger” was radioed back to base telling them they had been successful. Gibson told Martin and Maltby to set course for home and Young, Shannon, Maudslay and Knight to follow him east to the Eder.

At the Eder Maudslay went first and had tremendous difficulty because of the hilly terrain to get low enough to release his bomb. After several attempts he finally released it only to see it bounce over the parapet. He never returned from the raid. Shannon was called up next and after a couple of goes finally released his bomb perfectly and managed to get back into the air. But the dam still stood. There was only Knight left and after aborting his first attempt came back-round and placed his bomb exactly right. As the water erupted Gibson turned his aircraft for a look and watched as the face of the dam collapsed and a torrent rush down the valley. The code word “Dinghy” was sent back to base to tell them the Eder had been destroyed and Gibson and the remaining Lancasters turned back to England.

McCarthy was the only Lancaster to get through to the Sorpe. After two abortive runs due to the hilly terrain he was finally able to drop his bomb accurately. He watched 50 yards of the parapet come crashing down and sent his successful code word back to London.

Aftermath

Only 10 planes returned from the raid. 56 young men out of the original 133 were missing. 3 of one craft had parachuted out at a very low height and spent the rest of the war in a prison camp.

Wallis was distraught when he realised how costly the raid had been, “If only I had known, I’d never have started this.”

Later Gibson was awarded the Victoria Cross, Martin, McCarthy, Maltby, Shannon and Knight got D.S.O.’s, Bob Hay, Hutchinson, Leggo and Walker got bars to their D.F.C’s. There were ten D.F.C.’s awarded and twelve D.F.M.’s.

When the King and Queen visited the new squadron they were able to select from a competition Gibson had run on a design for a squadron badge. Unanimously they picked a drawing showing a dam breached in the middle with water flowing out and bolts of lightning above with the motto “Apres nous le deluge”.

Barry

In 1972 I was walking across the Moehne dam in West Germany with my wife and 2 year old daughter. It was a cold winter's day and whether that was the reason I felt a shiver through my body or because I was reliving the thoughts of the men of my age as they roared up the lake towards the dam in an attempt to breach a hole in the massive concrete wall I was standing on, I was not sure. It was 30 years since that heroic day and now, another 40 years later as I recall that day I still feel a shiver when I read about the times leading up to the formation and deeds of 617 Squadron.

An idea begins

Sir Barnes Wallis worked for Vickers, designing new aircraft that would carry the war to Germany. At the start of the war he was attempting to design a replacement for the Wellington. The Warwick was giving him problems with the tail unit and also interfering with his thoughts on how he could bring a quicker conclusion to the war. He did not know much about bombs but was convinced that bigger bombs were the answer. Earthquake bombs would bring the industrial might of Germany to its knees. Unfortunately the present explosive used was useless, the maximum size of bombs was limited to 500lbs and there was no aircraft that could carry 1,000lb or bigger bombs.

Sir Barnes Wallis

He eventually saw that destroying the German’s water sources was a possibility. Germany’s method of producing steel for their war effort required eight tons of water for every ton of steel. There were three main dams that supplied most of this water, the Moehne, the Eder and the Sorpe and they were all situated in the Ruhr. The Moehne dammed the Moehne Lake where the Heve flowed into the Ruhr River and held 134 million tons of water. The Eder dammed the Eder River and held 212 million tons of water. The Sorpe dammed another tributary of the Ruhr River forming Sorpe Lake. The Moehne dam was 112 feet thick at the base, 130 feet high and 25 feet thick at the top over which a roadway ran; the Eder was even bigger. Even the Sorpe made of sealed earth with a central buttress of concrete was pretty formidable.

Whilst reading about their construction in manuals kept in an Engineering Library he was sure he had picked the right answer when he read the engineers assessment of the effects of breaching the dams. It would not merely destroy the hydro-electric power and deprive foundries of essential water. It would also affect other war industries that needed water for their processes, deprive the surrounding population of water services, and breaches in the dams would send water flooding down the valleys disrupting infrastructure. The theory was fine but a 500lb bomb would hardly scratch the concrete and a bomb twenty times bigger would not damage them either.

He had read of concrete piles shattering when they were being piled into the River Thames. It was the ability of water to focus the shock waves that moved him into thinking of exploding a bomb in the water. He calculated that a ten-ton bomb with 7 tons of explosive in an aero-dynamically-designed case of special steel, dropped from 40,000 feet, would reach a speed of 1,440 feet per second, or 982 m.p.h. well over the speed of sound. At that rate it should penetrate an average soil to a depth of 135 feet. Barnes Wallis felt he was well on his way to finding the answer.

Wallis must have been extremely frustrated over the following months. No one wanted to hear about his big bomb theory let alone plough through the reams of backing calculations. However eventually a committee was set up of designers and scientists and a Doctor Glanville of the Road Research Laboratories at Harmondsworth suggested building a model dam and testing the theories with scaled down explosive charges. Over the following months when he could get away from Vickers, Wallis helped build a model dam one-fiftieth the size of the Moehne with tiny scaled down cubes of concrete. The model was about 30 feet long, 33 inches high and up to 2 feet thick and one side was flooded to simulate the lake.

The big problem was that when he actually did significant damage to the model he calculated that scaled up he would need 30,000lbs of the new explosive RDX. This meant with the weight of the necessary special steel to hold the explosive he would have a bomb of 70,000lbs, over 30 tons. The Victory bomber, still only on paper, would only be able to carry a maximum of 10 tons. He was not ready to give up. If he could explode a bomb up against the wall of the dam or maybe several bombs in the same place the damage would be significant but how could he guarantee the accuracy?

He remembered skipping stones over a lake whilst on holiday with the children. Using an old bath tub in his back yard he started experimenting with an elastic band and his children’s marbles. He found he could control the length of travel of the marble by adjusting the tension on the elastic, if he could control a bomb to stop up against the dam and then sink to a pressure-fused height he could ensure all the bombs exploded in the exact same place but he needed to know how large a bomb he needed. After working with Dr. Glanville on another model dam he found a very small amount of gelignite exploding against the wall of the dam shattered the model. When he scaled up the results on paper he found he would need only 6,000lbs of RDX to breach the Moehne Dam. Adding the weight of the bomb’s casing gave you 9,500lbs which was less than 5 tons, well within the specifications of the new Lancaster bomber.

It is amazing how fast government departments can react if an idea looks acceptable.  Professor Patrick Blackett, who was head of an operational research branch listened and said, “We’ve been looking for this for two years.” He went and saw Sir Henry Tizard and told him of the idea and Sir Henry went down to see Barnes Wallis the very next day. He needed to see if Wallis’s idea would work in practise. Wallis had done his homework and said there was a huge ship-testing tank at Teddington where he could work out the exact logistics of the bomb. When asked how they could check the accuracy of the amount of explosive needed Wallis told him of an old disused dam in Radnorshire owned by the Birmingham Corporation. He worked out it should have a fifth of the resistance of the Moehne dam and armed with some RDX he blew a hole 15 feet across and 12 feet deep on the first attempt at Radnorshire.

The following months were spent at Teddington working out how to control the spin of the bomb, its best shape and size so that it would fit in a Lancaster and the fact it needed to be turned backwards just before it was released so a belt drive would be needed to spin the bomb. This had the added advantage that when it hit the dam it would keep turning against the wall of the dam as it slowly sank to the required depth. By the middle of 1942 he had a barrel shaped bomb weighing 5 tons that would skip across water, hit the dam surface and the residual back spin would keep it against the dam as it sunk down the face of it.

A practice 10.000 lbs 'Upkeep' weapon attached to the bomb bay of Wing Commander Guy Gibson's Avro Type 464 (Provisioning) Lancaster, ED932/G 'AJ-G', at Manston, Kent, while conducting dropping trials off Reculver.

The shape of the new bomb, barrel, mine or missile (Wallis was unsure what to call it) can be seen under the Lancaster as can the chain drive for getting the bomb to turn.

Wallis eventually got the go ahead to make 6 half size bombs that could be dropped by a Wellington. Mutt Summers, the test pilot for Vickers and long time friend of Wallis’s would fly the two-engine Wellington with Barnes Wallis as bomb aimer. When the bomb was dropped it hardly bounced at all and burst into pieces. The following day with a strengthened bomb casing they watched the bomb bounce for over half a mile and both Wallis and Summer were giving each other thumbs up all the way back home.

It was Mutt Summer who introduced Barnes Wallis to Air Marshal Sir Arthur Harris, chief of Bomber Command, a man who distrusted all inventors and was very difficult to convince. He watched the films and said he would not give Wallis a squadron of Lancaster’s based on a lot of theoretical work. Wallis said he only wanted one to prove it in trials first. For the next few weeks Wallis appeared to be getting nowhere until on the 26th February he was summoned to London and told, “Orders have been received that your dam’s project is to go ahead immediately with a view to an operation at all costs no later than May.”

PART TWO of this article will follow shortly!

Barry

The last feudal Japanese military government controlled the country under strict policy during the Edo period (Edo Jidai 江戸時代).

This important period of Japanese history came to be in 1615, following the battle of Osaka (Osaka no Eki) and lasted until power was restored to the Emperor (known as a Mikado) in 1868. While 267 years seems like a small fraction of time for a country with such a long history – especially compared to Japan’s neighbour China, where the period seems almost insignificant compared to those like the Zhou dynasty which lasted 810 years between 1066 and 256 BC – this was still a long and culturally significant time for Japanese history.

Also known as the Tokugawa period due to the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate, the Edo period followed the Sengoku period where warlords fought for control of Japan, and succeeded the Momogama period (1573-1615). During this time, three leaders aspired to unify Japan; one of these leaders was Oda Nobunaga (織田 信長). Nobunaga conquered the vast majority of both Central and Western Japan before being succeeded by his general, Toyotomi Hideyoshi (豊臣 秀吉) who was an outstanding figure during the Sengoku period as a daimyo; (大名) a powerful feudal lord. It was Hideyoshi who gained control of the rest of Japan through his military skill as a warrior. Before his death in 1598 during his second attempt of invading Korea, he left 5 guardians in control of Japan who would stand aside when his son was of age to take his place. Needless to say, it didn’t work out that way. His son was an infant and the “guardians”, despite their promises, all wanted control of Japan for themselves. In hindsight, an historian could argue that leaving 5 feudal lords in control could only result in arguments over land - at the very least.

Toyotomi Hideyoshi on his horse and his unique helmet

The guardian who would later become ruler of Japan, and a prominent figure within history books, was the Daimyo Tokugawa Ieyasu (徳川 家康).  Tokugawa fought off Hideyosha loyalists, Westerners, and the other feudal lords during events such as the battle of Sekigahara (Seikigahara no Tatakai, (關ヶ原の戰い) on October 21st, 1600, which has been described by historians as the unofficial beginning of the Tokugawa shogunate. By 1603, Tokugawa was appointed as Shogun (military governor) by the Emperor and the Capital was moved to Edo, though it took until 1615 for him to remove the remaining threats, such as the Toyotomi han (successors of Toyotomi Hideyoshi) who were destroyed that year during the battle of Osaka, officially beginning the time period of his power. And so, at the new capital of Edo (hence the reference in the title “Edo period”), the dynasty of Tokugawa shoguns began.

Under the rule of the Tokugawa, Japanese culture evolved and developed; traditions were reborn and rekindled, and the arts flourished as Edo became the largest city on Earth.

Tokugawa Ieyasu in Hamamatsu, Japan

To summarise the Tokugawa period in few words, I would describe it as a timeframe of strict control and social order. In fact, historians have described the era to fundamentally rely on social order. Society was divided into 5 classes: beneath the emperor (who had very little to no political power), Shogun, daimyo, and other lords were Samurai, followed by peasants, artisans, and then merchants. This social order was important as a structure and fundamental basis of life during the Edo period. An argument could be made that there were 6 classes due to outcasts being in a category of their own, working on the lowest jobs available such as dealing with dead animals, however due to outcasts being viewed without honour they seem to be discounted from the rest of Japanese society.

An historian could also describe the Tokugawa period to be harshly controlled. After society was divided into the 5 classes in 1603, Tokugawa Ieyasu banned Christianity from Japan (1614). In 1633, around 15 years after the battle of Osaka, he banned foreign books and forbid Japanese citizens from travelling overseas, which was followed up by the ban on ship building in 1638. By the year 1641, all foreigners except for the Chinese and Dutch were banned from Japan. In this way, an historian could also describe the Edo period as an era of seclusion. It was agreed that the Dutch could remain in the harbour off the coast of Nagasaki, though interaction was limited. Through this, the only (small) stream of Western technologies and ideas interacted with Japan through the Dutch in this area. Of course, very limited and restricted trade occurred between Japan and the Dutch, and the Chinese.  Confucianism was also promoted due to its ideas involving loyalty and obedience – aspects which the Tokugawa shogunate wanted civilians to take action in – until neo-Confucianism became the official state philosophy in 1790 (note that the introduction of Confucianism to Japan came through influence from China as early as the year 500, the term Shinto for Japan’s original religion being formed in 550 in order for people to differ between that, Confucianism, and Buddhism).

Literacy increased - even among Samurai literacy became more important as many developed to become bureaucrats – as education became more and more important. Arts flourished; during the time of seclusion old Japanese arts were revisited and revised, becoming new and popular. Kabuki (歌舞伎), the Japanese masked drama which is now considered as a traditional form of Japanese theatre, was formed during the Edo period and became popular among peasants as a form of entertainment.

Stage of the Kabuki play "Sukeroku" at Edo-Tokyo Museum

Rinpa (琳派) – a traditional Japanese painting style - was created in Kyoto, and became a major art style which was formed and developed during this period, with popular decorations revolving around nature and the seasons. Tea ceremonies were among the arts of the past which were revisited after being adopted during the Momoyama period. The small amount of trading with the Dutch triggered an impulsive development in Japanese porcelain, and the Ming (Chinese dynasty) Monks influence introduced other new art forms such as Bunjin-ga (literati painting) (文人画) or Nanga (南画) flourished among academic artists with simple-coloured landscape paintings.   

Photo of Rinpa Collection Coffee Cup & Saucer　by Masuda Arts, Yokohama Japan

However, having such strict control over ideas and influences can always lead to problems; especially in a society where social order is the backbone to everyday life.

The first main problem, ultimately aiding the fall of the Tokugawa shogunate, was the changes in social order. Due to Japan’s agricultural centre developing, resulting in towns with rice fields becoming business points, merchants began to make more money than samurai. This of course, due to the social order announced in 1603, led to problems because the merchants were not allowed to become wealthier than Samurai. Furthermore, as Samurai became more interested in arts and education their wealth decreased; this often resulted in Samurai falling into debt with merchants who they borrowed money from (this was not allowed, and was secretive because the merchants couldn’t be found out to have more wealth than those of higher social status to them).

A large amount of taxing occurred which targeted the peasants – the group almost completely composed of farmers – which resulted in many riots and rebellions. Even though the Edo period has described as a period of peace in Japan by historians, I would argue that those statements are more in comparison to the previous Sengoku period (warlords constantly fighting) because many food shortages and riots occurred, despite the strong economy and agricultural centres. So, although the self-imposed isolation of Japan appears to be supported by the vast majority of Japan, other decisions led to a general dislike for the Tokugawa shogunate.

Japan’s reintroduction to the world started 1720 when the ban on Western books was lifted, allowing scholars to begin translating Dutch books gained through trade at Nagasaki harbour.

By the 19th century, Japan was quite a contrast to the Western world. America and England now had technologies and sciences rapidly developing; the industrial revolution having occurred in England between 1760 to 1820. Aspects we recognise today like skyscrapers and subway/cable-car systems were built in these places, while Japan – despite the artistic growth of the Edo period – was notably un-modern in comparison. In 1853, American Commodore Matthew Perry sailed to Edo harbour (modern-day Tokyo harbour) along with 4 American Navy ships, although Japan was not exactly under attack. Perry demanded Japanese ports to open to America, and thus Japan’s isolation came to an end – and not exactly by Japan’s own choice. For the first time in 200 years, trade and interaction between Japan and the Western world resumed. The Americans succeeded in gaining relations with Japan through trade agreements involved in the Treaty of Kanagawa. Reasons for America’s interest in re-opening trade with Japan included benefits for American whaling, and creating an American port in the pacific to aid transport/trading with China; though Perry was not the first American to attempt this, he was the only one successful in landing ship in Japan. Though the opening of ports occurred reluctantly, Japan eventually took advantage of modern technology – primarily aiding in modernising the Japanese military. Though greatly aiding Japanese modernisation (which is a completely different story, and I shall avoid going into any further detail), opening the ports to the Western world affected the Tokugawa shogunate.

Japan felt threatened by the greater technologies available in the West, and Japanese civilians were disapproving of the government’s decision to interact with the West, which aided in further weakening the Tokugawa shogunate’s stanza in the public eye.

During the 1860’s there were rebellions against the government – many people were wishing for the Emperor to return to power. Please note that at no point was the Emperor removed – when the Edo period came to formation at the rise of Tokugawa Ieyasu, his power as Shogun was gifted to him by the Emperor. Emperors did still exist in Japan, but had no political power; it was the Shogun and government who were in control of the country.

The Emperors of the Tokugwa period were: 

Go-Mi-no-o (1612-1629) 
Meisho (1630-1643) 
Go-Komyo (1644-1654) 
Go-Saiin (1655-1662) 
Reigen (1663-1686) 
Higashi-yama (1687-1709) 
Nakamikado (1710-1735) 
Sakuramachi (1736-1746) 
Momozono (1746-1762) 
Go-Sakuramachi (1763-1770)
Go-Momozono (1771-1779) 
Kokaku (1780-1816) 
Ninko (1817-1846) 
Komei (1847-1866)

Japanese Satsuma pavillion at the French expo 1867

The Satsuma and Choushuu han (Japanese historical term for “estate of the warrior” 藩) led rebellion. The Satsuma Han (薩摩藩) were one of the most powerful groups of the Edo period, as well as one of the wealthiest. So much so that Satsuma were granted the ability to possess more than one castle by the Shogun.

The Satsuma rebellion (西南戦争 Seinan Sensou or Southwestern War) occurred in 1877 between January and September as Satsuma Samurai acted against the imperial government, though the age known as the “fall of Edo” (江戸開城 Edo Kaijou) is dated between May to July 1868. This was the final, and what an historian could describe as the most intense and critical, of the rebellions and armed uprisings opposing the government and Tokugawa Shogunate.  In the year 1868, Chousuu and Satsuma domains forced Shogun Yoshinobu (Ieyasu’s successor) to resign.

Here, the Tokugawa dynasty ended.

Mikado (Emperor) came to power. Edo was renamed “Tokyo” on September 3rd, 1868, but remained the capital city of Japan.

For nearly 250 years, Japan had been an almost untouchable aspect of the Pacific. It was after the Tokugawa shogunate was removed from power that Japan began modernisation; the Meiji period (明治時代 Meiji-jidai) began.

Caitlin

Caitlin continues her series of articles on China today with a look at Ying Zheng, the first emperor of the Qin dynasty.

Tony and I were lucky enough to take a school trip to China back in 2005. We were fascinated by this incredibly different culture, and our trip to Xi'an to see the Terracotta Warriors was of particular interest to me, bearing in mind my degree in archaeology.

Caitlin has a beautiful writing style and manages to bring to life these events of so long ago. I hope you are enjoying her articles as much as I am at the moment.

Freya

The first imperial dynasty of China was founded by Ying Zheng, King of Qin, forming the Qin dynasty.

Ying Zheng was the first emperor of Qin and the emperor to unify China – his armies conquered the Han, Wei, Zhao, Chu, Yan, and Qi feudal states of the old Zhou Kingdom. Later known as Qin Shi Huang, he was the first of a long line of imperial rulers – the first of 557 (including the rulers of minor states) to be exact. He was the first of two emperors in the Qin dynasty (the second being his son Hu Hai, who was later overthrown) which lasted from the year 221 to 207 BC. You might notice that this is only a small period of time; 15 years is shorter than the blink of an historical eye. However, this in no way makes it insignificant. An historian could recognise that the feat of unifying China is, in its own right, massive, and historically notable for shaping the present – let alone the influence which carried on to many following dynasties and people (Mao Zedong, Chairman of the People’s republic of China saw himself as a mirror of Qin) as well as the cultural wonders which blossomed at the time.

There have been claims that the word “Qin”, in referral to the Emperor and his dynasty, is the root to which the name “China” originated from, although in our modern world we are more likely to link the word “Qin” to the famous terracotta warriors, or the Great Wall of China, which we classify as one of our seven wonders. Emperor Qin reformed politics, Chinese economy and military, and culture. He formed the restrictions which made the Ban Liang coin (a coin which we would view as a metal circle with a square hole in the centre) the only one to be used in the country; he standardised the Qinzhuan characters as China’s writing font; he placed importance on infrastructure and put focus on the building and designing of irrigation and road works.

Qin could be described as a tyrant nonetheless.

Qin Shi Yuang, also known as Ying Zheng
The first emperor of the Qin dynasty

Books he feared would change people’s perspective of him or his state, or alter their way of thinking at all, were burnt. He produced heavy taxes, forced civilians into the military, and killed many through hard labour – such as that which went into the Great Wall. In his second year of power, he had 460 scholars buried alive. He desired longevity and sent ministers on quests for immortality elixir… though that hardly makes him a tyrant, you can understand that Qin was driven to say the least.

As I mentioned before, Emperor Qin left some of the most important cultural artefacts we know of. The Great Wall of China was built by soldiers, prisoners of war, convicts, and peasants who were forcibly recruited. If they fell dead on the job, building continued until they were buried under what they were constructing. There is a legend from the time about a woman whose husband died while building, and that as she mourned her weeping was so bitter that it collapsed a section of the wall, revealing his bones so she could bury him (legend of Meng Tiangnv). While the wall is viewed by unfathomable numbers of visitors each day, the rumour that it can be viewed from space (without aid) is not true. What is probably my personal favourite fact about the Great Wall is that it was originally built along the Northern border of China, aspiring to protect the country from barbarians – however it is now located closer to the centre of China. We can thank the Mongols for this as their interactions with China (namely that of Kublai Khan) resulted in the expanding of Chinese territory. Mongolian land became that of the Chinese as the Mongol empire dissolved; but that is a completely different (and much later) story in the history of China.

Some of the Terracotta Warriors showing their distinctive facial features

The next major point of interest left behind by the Qin dynasty, the Terracotta Army, is a part of the world’s largest tomb complexes. To date, 8,000 statues have been uncovered despite the fact that most of the site is unexcavated. Realistic, life-sized people, horses, and chariots were built to be buried with Qin on his death. Construction ended whilst the Empire was in turmoil one year after Qin’s passing, though some historians estimate that it was probably never completed. Historians also believe that some 700,000 workers spent almost 30 years on the tomb and terracotta figures, placing so much effort and detail into them that each terracotta face has distinctive facial features. Today, we are amazed by the site itself, though you could assume that people at the time were more thankful that it was a terracotta army being buried with Qin in favour of them being laid to rest beside him.
 
Qin’s death occurred while traveling in 210BC. The peasant uprising (with taxes and forced military service, I am sure I do not need any more detail as to why this uprising occurred) led by Cheng Shang and Wu Quang followed, resulting in the abrupt halt to the dynasty while under Hu Hai’s leadership in 207BC.  Despite being an ephemeral dynasty, Qin shaped Chinese history politically and culturally and aided in moulding the shape of China which we recognise today, with geographic and cultural reminders of this still prominent.

And so, the first of thousands of years of imperial rule in China began with Ying Zheng in 221BC…

Caitlin

The year is 1912. In this year, the Titanic sank, the Balkan wars began, and China ended over 2,000 years under imperial rule.

Emperor Pu Yi was removed from power – the last emperor of the Qing dynasty (also known as Manchu dynasty) and the last emperor China would ever possess. Sun Yat Sen became the first president of the Republic of China after revolution erupted. The people of China had blamed their troubles on their rulers resulting in the formation of the Chinese republic. However, the republic collapsed by 1916 and warlords (local generals) controlled the majority of China.

Today, we all know China as a communist nation. The events starting in the year 1912 can be described by an historian as those leading to the Communist Party taking control of China – but what caused the end to a long history of imperial rule and why did communism come to favour over democracy?  

The basic overview of communism vs nationalism/democracy goes something like this…

When Sun Yat Sen died in 1925, Kuomintang (nationalist political party in the Republic of China, established in 1919) was divided; as well as China herself. The army commander Chiang Kai Shek had North and South East China, while the communists were in Central China. The communists were expelled from Kuomintang which led to organised riots. Both nationalists and communists fought for control of China during the 1920’s and 30’s. Mao Zedong became leader of the Communist Party in 1935, only two years before China was thrown into war with Japan, and Mao extended communist control over China. Civil war took place between 1945 and 1949, the communists won and Mao Zedong became chairman of the People’s Republic of China.

Mao Zedong

Ultimately, that’s the most simplified summary of it all. Now back to 1912. As a nation, China wanted to remain individual: forces from the United Kingdom and Japan invading and influencing China was considered a threat as the Chinese people did not want to lose themselves to outside ideas or religions. As I mentioned before, the blame fell straight to the ruling emperor, however when imperial rule was abolished the people discovered political chaos. A weak democratic government and rising communism was enough to throw the country into turmoil for years before the communist party came out on top. While democracy was failing to aid China, the people (namely those who already supported communism) looked to other nearby countries; namely Russia - who they saw to be strong because of communism. So with that background, what led to the communists asserting their leadership?After Sun Yat Sen’s death (1925), General Chian Kai Shek – as the new leader of the Kuomintang – worked with the communist party to defeat the warlords who had taken control of various points of China, as well as Japan who had invaded in the East. However, in contrast to this, Kai Shek turned against the communists in 1927 and executed a large number of members of communist-backed labour unions. This caused the remaining (surviving) communists to flee. During a major event known as “The Long March”, the Red Army (communist army, known as this due to red being a colour associated with communism) escaped to the Shaanxi province approximately 9,700km away. This event took place in 1934, and was named as “The Long March” by Mao Zedong who emerged as communist party leader after the 368-day feat. During Mao’s December 1936 speech, he described the Long March as a heroic event, stating that it “proclaimed to the world that the red army is an army of heroes” (translation located in text “World book’s documenting history the Chinese revolution, published by World book Inc. U.S.A. by Joseph Harris).

1945 was the year that the USA dropped the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan, forcing their surrender. While the Second World War had drawn Japanese troops out of China, the fighting had continued in the East, where the Japanese had invaded Manchuria in 1931. The communist forces had captured General Chiang and only released him once an end to the civil war was agreed on in order to join forces and defend against Japan. Of course, this didn’t last long. Despite this, in 1949 the communists had the support of China’s peasant majority and stronger military tactics; the Soviet Union supplying the communist weapons was also an aid to the eminent victory. The nationalist government became increasingly corrupt and unpopular with the Chinese people, while the communists appealed to larger numbers and were able to earn control of large areas of Northern China during the civil war. By December 1939, General Chiang and his supporters fled to the Chinese Island of Taiwan after the U.S. Army General George C. Marshal failed to sort out a peace arrangement. And so, the civil war was brought to an end. The People’s Republic of China was founded on October 1, 1949, Beijing became the new capitol and China allied itself with the Soviet Union (along with other communist powers).

1949 Mao and Stalin in Moscow during Stalin birthday celebration, December 1949

The communist government brought land and wealth under state control, and eventually resulted in China becoming a one-party state with no opposition allowed; only communist ideas could be published or broadcast due to propaganda and censorship.

During approximately 40 years of struggle, both nationalist and communist supporters died – around 60,000 communists died during the Long March alone. The death total of the Chinese revolution was 30 million - according to the Chinese government, that is.

China remains communist, despite events like the Tiananmen Square incident of 1989 as a part of a democracy movement (which of course resulted in multiple executions) and Mao Zedong’s death in 1976 (September 9th).

China’s problems with fitting into the modern world caused what an historian could describe as a domino effect setting off the end to imperial rule and a rivalry between communism and democracy which created the civil war. We know from events like the Vietnam War (in which the Vietcong were aided by China) that Mao Zedong formed one of, if not the first “people’s war” and that after all the inner commotion churning within China, it came out as a communist state. And this has been a very brief summary on how and why China became that communist state.

Caitlin

“Chinese influences on Japan affecting historical development”

When we think of Asia it is generally China and Japan which come to mind first. Culturally, Japan and China have both similarities and differences; maybe that is why we in the Western world tend to view them closely together. Seeing certain similarities between the two is not an uncommon thing; like many other countries Japan was influenced by the Chinese throughout history as China continuously developed and expanded.

It was the year 57AD when Japan was first mentioned in Chinese history, during the Japanese Yayoi period (300BC-300AD). This earliest known written record of Japan from a Chinese source stated that the Nakoku state of Wa – “Wa” being the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese name for Japan – received a golden seal from an Emperor of the Han dynasty (Emperor Guangwu). This source was recorded by Hou Han Shu, or “history of the later Han”; 143 years before the invention of sushi - Japan’s national dish - and 182 years before the first recorded Japanese envoy visited China.

As you might expect, China had little chance of not influencing Japan, being an Asian country located near China which was behind in civilisation and technological development. Although, unlike other Asian countries – namely those located to the South of China, like Vietnam, the Japanese never lost sight of their own culture - Japan retained cultural and political independence from China. While aspects of China were adopted by Japan, the use of selecting, borrowing, adapting and importing allowed the Japanese people to control the flow of Chinese ideas into the country. In the words of Professor Peter Stearns, Japan “initiated and controlled the process of cultural borrowing from China.” For a country as advanced as China to do this with what Japan was at the time, this was of huge benefit to Japan; the Japanese were able to become fully civilised and through the process of controlled selection, they were never sucked into becoming dominated by the Chinese. But how can we know it was all voluntary and controlled? We can infer this because Japan has, and has always, remained politically independent from China.

It is clear that China was able to influence Japan – so what ways does this include?

Hiragana(Red)/Katakana(Blue)/Romanization(Gray)

What I find to be the most notable similarity and influence is the writing system. In the year 500, the Chinese writing system was adopted and adapted as the first writing system of Japan. This opened the way (with difficulties) for new aspects for Japanese culture; the ability to write and record – which as historians, we can clearly understand the importance of. Of course, this was later adapted on; the Chinese and Japanese languages are very different, so in order for their writing system to suit the Japanese system Hiragana, and later Katakana, were later developed within Japan. However, it was still a large step up from having no writing system. The Japanese were in this way able to study religious and political texts that originated in China – Chinese then could be compared to Latin in Europe, scholars over Asia were able to read Chinese texts, including those from Korea; with this influence, Japan joined those countries. Men wrote in Chinese, documents were written in Chinese; the Japanese adapted the characters to transliterate their own language. Robert Oxnam, a China scholar, states that this writing system as “a fundamental aspect of Japanese culture [having] foreign roots but a uniquely Japanese expression.” In this way, I would describe this development as a key influence of China upon Japanese civilisation.

Naturally, the influence does not stop there. Another major aspect of Chinese culture affecting and influencing Japan was the introduction of Buddhism, which altered the culture through more than just religion. It was during the year 593 when the Soga clan ruling over Japan at the time promoted Buddhism – though it had been introduced earlier than that. In the year 605, Prince Shotoku – the one who originally promoted Buddhism in Japan – declared Buddhism, along with Confucianism, the state religions of Japan. Even in Japan today Buddhism, along with Shintoism, major in the Japanese religious department. Through the introduction of Buddhism came new ideas in architecture; Buddhist temples and their architectural ideas featuring their curved roof style were a result of Chinese influence. This, once again, is still a relevant feature of Japanese culture today.

Butsuden 仏殿 at Myōshin-ji in Kyoto, Japan. Head head temple of the associated branch of Rinzai Zen Buddhism

And so it continues. Styles of government were shaped by China; an early example of this is in the year 400 when the Yamato culture ruled over Japan from Kyushu to Kinai plane through being modelled after China. City planning resulting in the shaping of roads copying that of China’s, art and clothing in Japan were all influenced by China. For example, the kimono is an aspect of Japanese culture we can easily recognise; this was in fact inspired by fashion of the Han period. After reading this, I instantly related back to the Emperor’s dress clothes displayed in Te Papa museum earlier this year and could understand the similarities. The resemblance can be seen within the shape, colour, and material style of the clothing. 

So, once again, a prominent feature of Japanese culture, while being distinctively Japanese, was “inspired” by China.

Other features such as paintings and decorative scrolls were also affected by China through Buddhist influence; Chinese ink and fine paper, calligraphy as an art form, music, and masked dramas (Gingaku) are all aspects of Japan influenced by China.

Though, being two completely different places with different levels of resource accessibility, and ultimately different cultures, not everything Chinese-inspired worked out for Japan. For example, bureaucracies (a word thankfully more complicated to spell than it is to comprehend) which were stimulated from Chinese government resulted in inconveniencing Japanese peasants. Of course, there are also characteristically Japanese aspects of culture which do not link to Chinese culture – China had imperial soldiers, but Samurai and ninja are distinctively Japanese; in earlier history Japan never practically had an army, though they did possess Samurai warriors. While contact was forbidden with China by the Japanese emperor in 838, during years both prior and afterwards the histories and cultures of Japan and China often cross paths. Despite this early cut between the two countries’ ties, a (much) later example of how close China and Japan were in ancient times could be found in the year 1641 where Tokugawa Iemitsu (third Shogun of the Tokugawa dynasty) banned all foreigners except those who were Chinese or Dutch. Through both action and culture, we can clearly see that China has had a long-term historical effect on Japanese historical development.

I find that overall, Japan has made the most of its Chinese influences through its historical developments while at the same time remaining an individual, distinguishable country; their early interactions helped shape Japan into what we recognise now. Part of Japan remaining so individual comes down to the actions Japan took to develop and adapt Chinese influences instead of adopting them; Chinese influences are what an historian could describe as important stepping stones of Japanese history which enabled the historical development to occur in a way which resulted in the formation of modern Japan and the Japanese culture we recognise and admire.

Caitlin

Sunrise in a cold morning off the coast of Orland, the year is 1564, and war once again consumes a part of Europe.

Sweden, the ever growing giant of the north, expands westwards to increase the number of trading ports in its control and ultimately attempting to monopolize trade in the Baltic Sea. Of course, this is all much to the disliking of the Danish who declared war (along with Prussia) to defend their trading ports.

And so this brings us back to the coast of Orland, an island west of the more famous Gotland where many skeletal remains were discovered in the 1930s in medieval mass graves from when the local populace were slaughtered by the professional Danish army 200 years prior to the war which now surrounds the region.

Of course, gaining a monopoly in the Baltic Sea means to clear the area of hazards to your trading ships, meaning enemy ships which could raid them and steal the valuables being transported, and this is where the ship “Mars” comes in to play.

A drawing of the Swedish warship (ship of the line) Mars, also known as the Makalös (Peerless), which was constructed between 1563 and 1564.

The Mars was unlike any ship before her. Named after the Roman god Mars, the god of war, she truly suited the name. She was among the first warships of her time to have three masts, an advantage which had the ability to make her faster and more manoeuvrable than most ships. But of course being three-masted also meant the ship was quite a bit bigger, which allowed for another advantage. More cannons.

Naval warfare in the 1500s was quite crude. The idea was one simply tried to sink the enemy’s ship before she sunk you, and the Mars certainly had a greater advantage in this. Due to her size, she was able to mount three decks of guns, in fact, even her crow’s nest was armed with cannonades (think of them as miniature cannons), and it is thought that she was armed with 170 cannons made of the highest quality of Swedish iron. And it was those cannons which transformed her into a legend.

It was never quite known where the Mars sank or how she sank, but one thing which remained unchanged in her story was her transport of treasure. As the stories go, the Mars had been instructed to transport 200,000 pieces of silver as well as several large church bells (which were to be melted down to make cannons) which had been taken from several towns and villages as the Swedish army advanced. As she sailed north, apparently the Danes attempted to attack the fleet she sailed in, but as records show, the Danish were fought off and the fleet continued unhindered.

This was when the Holy Roman Empire decided to have a crack at them. As the Sun was rising, the fleet was spotted by a Germanic fleet, and the battle commenced. The ships of the line fought, each attempting to outdo the other; some ships were boarded, and others simply slipped into the sea. The Mars however fought with one of the German heavyweights. Cannons roared as the two ships sailed beside each other, cannon balls splintering wood as crew members struggled to reload.

Two guns of 16th century style similar to those mounted on the Mars and the Mary Rose. In front is a bronze cast culverin and behind is a wrought iron cannon.

It was at that moment things began to go wrong for the Mars. With a crunch, the Germanic ship slid alongside the Mars and the German crew boarded her. Her crew fought valiantly to save her, outnumbering the German crew. However, due to a twist of fate, the Germans got the upper hand. In the bow a fire broke out; and with every man on deck fighting to repel the boarders, none had the chance to extinguish it. As the men continued to fight, the fire grew larger. What didn’t help was the fact that the main powder magazine was in the bow where the fire was located and it was fuelling the fire. Within minutes the bow was an inferno of flames, the sails flapped in the winds as the ropes were burnt away, and as the fire got hotter, the old wooden beams keeping the ship water tight ruptured, flooding the bow compartments, causing her to sink quickly with 1000 souls and a fortune of gold and silver on board. That was the end of the Mars, but it is the beginning of a new story.

Moving forward to 2011, a Dutch diving team by chance discovered the wreck while looking for another wreck in the area 246ft underwater. She lay on her starboard side in pristine condition thanks to the Baltic’s slow currents and absence of wood worms which in other oceans would cause a wooden wreck to disappear within 5 years. The wreck is like a time machine; its pristine condition means one is able to discover artefacts which one never would find in other wrecks. Such being the coat of arms of the Swedish king, inscriptions on the cannons, and of course, large amounts of the estimated 200,000 silver pieces which it was claimed she carried (one coin being valued at 13,000 Euros).

Since its discovery, several meetings have been held by historical societies about what should be done with the wreck. One option was to raise it as had been done with the Mary Rose in 1982, however the costs of conserving and preserving the wreck once it was raised would be enormous so the decision was made to leave her where she lays as a war grave.

The studying of the wreck has shed light on much of naval construction of the 16th century, which has so far remained a mystery. It was in this century that three-masted ship building first began and the Mars is perfect to study for this. Today she still is at the bottom of the Baltic where she will stay, however some of her cannons and artefacts have been recovered and are currently on display in the Swedish naval museum.

Richard

There  was old British television comedy show called ‘Dad’s Army’ which gently laughed both at and with the men who joined the Local Defence Volunteers, responding to the call in 1940 by Anthony Eden for a fighting force made up of men over or under military age to help defend Great Britain from invasion. This is a short excerpt from one of the scripts…

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Nazi Submarine commander: "your name also will go in my book! What is it?
Mainwaring: "Don't tell him Pike!"
Nazi Submarine commander: "So? It's Pike!...You are in the book!”

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So, was life in the LDV a ‘game’ or was there a much darker aspect to this organisation?

A statue of Captain Mainwaring was erected in Thetford, Norfolk, where most of the TV series Dad's Army was filmed

WRAP writer John, explains:

My Grandfather was a fire watcher living in Brixton, South London, during the 1940s. My Grandmother would tell us how he would leave our house every evening, often with an old bucket, a stirrup-pump and a tin helmet to watch for incendiary bombs and attempt to extinguish them before they got out control.

As children, we would go into fits of laughter as she would describe packing him off with a bottle of cold tea and a couple of cigarettes for his break. He would have been considered too old for active service, but in 1940 the LDV (Local Defence Volunteers) was formed initially to guard the five thousand miles of the British coastline. They were soon to become known to all as the "Home Guard".

These volunteers were at first armed with whatever they could lay their hands on, and in the early days an armband and  broom handle, with or without a kitchen knife attached, was used for rifle drill. Later, all the men were equipped with uniform, rifle and pack… Dad’s Army was born.

Local Defence Volunteer (LDV) recruits learning rifle drill at Buckhurst Hill, Essex, 1 July 1940.

By the spring of 1940, the war in Europe was not going too well for the Western allies, and Hitler’s Wehrmacht looked unstoppable, sweeping across the Low Countries and into France with seeming ease.  The French, along with the British Expeditionary Force under Lord Gort, had been pushed back to the coast of Northern France 10km west of the Belgian border to the beaches of Dunkirk, with the English Channel blocking their retreat. Things looked very dark indeed, with thousands of troops cut off with the sea at their back. Clearly, this was a time for emergency action, which the Ministry of War took quickly. Heeding the advice from the Navy, officials had had been busy commandeering every seaworthy craft along the southern coast of Britain and even beyond.

In a desperate rescue attempt, the Royal Navy put Operation Dynamo into action. Many considered that, even if successful, the lifting of troops off the beaches at Dunkirk would be able to save only a small number. What happened next, however, is history, with more than 330,000 British and French troops evacuated from the beaches by a flotilla of large and small craft, fishing boats and pleasure craft.

Royal Navy destroyers crowded with evacuated British troops, Dover, 31 May 1941.

With the beaches of Dunkirk evacuated and the loss of much of her abandoned heavy equipment in Northern France, the outcome was looking bleak for the defenders of the British Isles. Winston Churchill, the recently installed Prime Minister, was fully aware of the dire situation the country was in, and had privately confided to the Cabinet that the threat of an invasion was very real and imminent.

Churchill had already proposed to the Ministry of War that an underground army with the capability of sabotaging any occupying forces be formed and trained in all forms of espionage with special attention to the assassination of any persons thought likely to be sympathetic to the Nazi cause. Covert preparations had been going on for some months prior to the Dunkirk evacuation, and members of the Home Guard had been secretly identified and approached to volunteer for a top secret organisation, known vaguely as Auxiliary Units, a name unlikely to raise too much attention. All members would be expected to sign the Official Secrets Act and were sworn to total secrecy. None of their family members were to have the slightest idea of the job they were engaged in, and it was made clear to each recruit that there was every likelihood their chance of survival was slim with a life expectancy of less than two weeks.

The new recruits, many of which were farmers or even gamekeepers and poachers, went through a rigorous course of weapon training, bomb making, sabotage, hand to hand combat, and radio communications, as well as being taught to live off the land. This was why familiarity of the local landscape was so important. Eventually, some 3000 men were ready to go to ground, mainly along the coastline but also across the country, and emerge at dark to carry out attacks and acts of sabotage against enemy targets. They were not expected to confront enemy forces of strength in the open; however, smaller groups could be targeted and in case of capture each unit member was supplied with cyanide capsules…clearly they were fully aware of what awaited them in these circumstances.

Well-equipped secret bunkers were dug in hidden areas across southern England. Many were made to look like a small rough dugout , others were counter sprung with tree trunks or branches, but all would have secret entrances to the main larger hideout, and the Auxiliary Units were supplied with the best equipment available, in fact they were the first troops to  be supplied with the new plastic explosives, pen detonators and the  first to be given Thompson machine guns. There was a story that the ministry official who vetted volunteers in one area was the first name on their assignation list should the Germans invade. The reasoning was simple: in the event of him falling into enemy hands, he was in possession of the location of the underground bunkers and unit personnel (this was too great a risk to the operation).

In the event of a German invasion, these ‘Auxiliary units’ would leave their homes to join their units with the likelihood of never returning to their loved ones. The secrecy of the whole operation was so successful that little was known about it for decades after the end of the War, a tribute to all involved.

Auxiliary Units, Operational Base, emergency exit, Wivelsfield

In the years since the War, with the development of more and more of the green belt used for housing etc, some of the Auxiliary Unit bunkers have been recently unearthed and, to the amazement of the locals, many still contained some of the equipment secreted inside many years earlier. In one case, thirty years after the war at a development just across the border in Scotland, the local village had to be evacuated and the nearby rail link to London closed to trains after one of these bunkers was unearthed containing a large amount explosives whilst the bomb disposal squad blew up the cache and made safe the area.

When you remember the men who made up these units would have been too young, too old, or working in reserved occupations, many of them having been chided by their neighbours for not joining the armed forces in active service, it is a remarkable story of remarkable men.

Winston Churchill, one of the world’s great orators, addressed the British public following the retreat from the Dunkirk beaches in a defiant speech that has become one of the most quoted of all time, effectively turning what was a defeat into a morale boosting exercise. He claimed that “We shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills...” Churchill knew that this was no idle boast; the Auxiliary Units were ready to fight back as soon as the enemy began the invasion.

Thankfully, the invasion never came, and the allies went on finally to defeat Hitler’s Nazi regime in Europe and North Africa and these Auxiliary Units were never called upon to make the final sacrifice. What is clear, however, is that they were ready and willing to do so.

In the 1960s, more of this magnificent story came to light, and it remains a tribute to all those involved that so little was known about the formation of “Britain's Secret Army”. It is only in recent years that the men who made up this operation have received the recognition they so richly deserve by being included in the Remembrance Parade at the Cenotaph in London.

In Oct 2013, two nondescript manuals sold at an Eastbourne auction house, which appeared to be an old 1937 calendar and  a countryman's diary from a company called "Highworth fertilizer", were found to be disguised bomb manuals from one of the Auxiliary Units… they sold for £2000 each.

Now their story can be told, and a remarkable story it is too, with many books being written on the subject.

John

Osprey’s informative book of “The Chieftain Main Battle Tank 1965 – 2003” (Osprey New Vanguard) helped me recall many of the details I had forgotten since working on them.

I worked on this 54 tonne monster for most of my time in the regular army. I was on the second training course they had developed when I converted from “B” vehicles (Landrovers and lorries) to “A” vehicles (tanks, scout cars and personnel carriers) and I managed to learn a lot more by gaining experience with time.

I worked in 4 Armoured Workshops repairing the power packs, then moved on to the Forward Repair Group (FRG) going out and fitting the new power packs into the tanks when they broke down on exercises. I was then posted to the 5th Inniskilling Dragoon Guards as a corporal in “B” Squadron Light Aid Detachment (LAD) where I repaired them on a daily basis. Every squadron had a LAD of REME personnel that fixed the vehicles.

The Power Pack

The L60 power pack was designed by Rolls Royce and built under licence by British Leyland. The first engines were grossly under-powered, only at 450bhp, and whilst I was in the army were upgraded several times, eventually to 650bhp. They were also designed to run on any fuel after adjustments had been made but we never attempted this during my time. 

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Above can be seen a power pack out of the tank with its radiators up. When you had changed all the attachments, i.e. radiators, fans and all the pipes from a broken down pack onto a new engine, it was possible to run the power pack outside the tank as oil and water were self-contained within the power pack and only fuel had to be connected. The power pack was sitting in a specially made frame in the workshop. The engine was deafening if you ran it up without the exhausts fitted but you could walk round it checking all parts before sending it out completed. Out on exercise all that had to be done was to take out the broken-down pack and replace it with a repaired one from the workshop.

There was also a 3 cylinder Coventry Climax auxiliary engine fitted on the left wall of the engine compartment to provide power for the turret equipment and to help start up the main engine.

The Main Gun

The main armament was a 120 mm gun, with a rifled barrel which was extremely accurate and could fire whilst on the move as well as when static. In the early days it had a half inch ranging machine gun alongside the barrel which was later scrapped when optical computerised ranging was introduced. REME fitters did help the crews to “bomb up” when we were on the firing ranges and the tank held at least 60 shells and bag charges for the main gun.

There was a crew of four, a commander in the top turret, a gunner who sat below the commander to the right of the main gun and a loader/radio operator who was to the left of the main gun. The driver who was in the front beneath the barrel drove the tank in a reclined position when hatches were closed. REME used to drive the tanks when they were short of crew on the firing ranges.

Driving the Tank

When the call went out for “Bluebell drivers” (REME personnel) wanted on night gunnery exercises, we reported to our troop Sergeant and were allocated a vehicle to drive. When the barrel is facing forward, the driver’s seat is reasonably easy to get in. If the barrel is locked to the rear, you had to contort yourself to get in.

You lowered yourself onto the seat, operated the orange seat lowering levers either side and your seat dropped and the back rest went back and a head rest came up. You closed the hatch and locked it down and when you lowered your head onto the head rest you could tell this was how the tank should be driven. All the instruments were in front of you, gear indicator gauge, rpm indicator, speedometer and oil gauge. The feet supports were at the right angle for your heels to fit comfortably in and you could see through the periscope for driving forward. The gear change box was a small round box on the left side with a motorcycle type pedal which was flicked up to change up through the gears and pressed down to go back down through the gears. There were 6 forward gears and six reverse gears. The top speed of the tank was approximately 35 mph, forward or backwards, steering with left and right levers instead of a steering wheel.

When you drove the tank looking through the hatch you had better visibility but could not see any of your gauges and the foot controls felt all wrong. You also had to be very careful you did not bounce your face off the hatch rim if you missed a gear change.

The tracks were made up with 96 links on each side with rubber pads bolted into each link. This was to reduce the damage to main roads and did help maintain traction on icy surfaces. Track bashing was the crew’s job, to either adjust the tension of the tracks or even change tracks that had stretched past their usefulness. This task was labour intensive and not looked forward to.

Having read the Osprey book I now appreciate the problems we faced trying to keep these tanks on the road. They mentioned a major failure of the tank during its early days and I was working on them when this occurred. One of the regiments we supported lost 40 of its 45 tanks whilst on exercise and we had scientists over from England investigating the breakdowns. It also meant us working 12 hour shifts to rebuild the power packs and when I transferred to the FRG I had to go out and fit the power packs into the tanks.

My time with the Irish regiment 5th Inniskillings is fondly remembered spending much of my 2 years on exercises with my squadron. When we were radioed by a tank requesting assistance you always arrived at their location and found the engine covers up and cans of beer in a hole in the ground ready for consumption. Pouring water on the mud covering the cans kept the beer cold due to evaporation. These beers were shared with us and much appreciated when the job was finished.  

Barry